| Summary: | Force sensing is essential for many manipulation tasks and, more generally, for all robots physically interacting with their environment. While multi-axis force/torque sensors are readily available commercially, their cost and complex integration have so far limited a wide deployment. In this paper, we introduce a modular approach to design and to integrate low-cost force sensors directly into 3D printed robot parts. Based on off-the-shelf optical sensors embedded into deformable structures, sensitivity and load capacity can be selected from a wide range. A working six-axis sensor, including electronics, can be built for less than 20 dollars, plus a few hours of 3D printing. We present tested example designs for sensors of different complexity, from a basic one-dimensional deflecting beam to six-axis sensors with custom shapes. We summarize the basic sensor layout geometries, explain key 3D printing and integration aspects, discuss sensor calibration, and describe our Arduino firmware and ROS-based drivers.
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