| Summary: | Thesis (MA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. === ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The development of the global biotechnology industry largely coincided with the
development of the US biotechnology industry. This resulted in this industry's
oligopolistic and centralised nature where only a few multinational chemical and
pharmaceutical companies control most biotechnology processes and production of
commodities emanating from these processes. The governance of biotechnology
has, until recently, been dominated by state actors who have endeavoured to secure
national interests, including those of large multinational corporations (MNCs) based
within their boundaries.
The technological ability of developed states to exploit and use unevenly distributed
resources to their advantage means that an uneven relationship exists between
these and poor developing countries. This has been highlighted by differences in
public opinion about the role and application of biotechnology in society. While some
opinions favour the use and application of biotechnology to enhance food supplies
and boost production levels and trade, other opinions caution against the possible
hazards that genetically manipulated organisms (GMOs) hold for the environment
and human existence.
The commercialisation of biotechnology has resulted in the exponential growth of
genetically manipulated crops in especially the United States and countries like
Argentina and Canada. These countries produce large surpluses of staple grains
such as corn and soya and try to sell these to countries with food supply problems.
The clash in commercial interests stemming from developed countries' insistence on
the protection of intellectual property rights (IPR) on genetically manipulated (GM)
seeds has caused considerable conflict with poor farmers who will not be able to
sustain their livelihoods if they cannot save seeds for future harvests.
This is one aspect of the problems surrounding the protection of knowledge products
that is exacerbated by the scientific uncertainty pertaining to the risk involved with
biotechnology. While some observers agitate for precaution with the use of GMOs,
others feel that a lack of scientific proof of harm is sufficient grounds for proceeding
with developments in biotechnology. Conversely, there are some that feel that biotechnology is market driven instead of human needs driven, ultimately resulting in
developing countries receiving very little benefit from it.
The Cartagena Protocol on biosafety was drafted to address some of the difficulties
involved with the transboundary movement of GMOs. Although it holds very specific
advantages for developing countries, as a regulatory framework it is limited in its
scope and application. Developing countries are limited in their policy options to
address their need to protect biodiversity and secure their food supply. This means
that considerable challenges and constraints await these countries in utilising global
governance of public goods and building their human and technological capacities. === AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die ontwikkeling van die globale biotegnologie-industrie het grootliks saamgeval met
die ontwikkeling van die Verenigde State se biotegnologie-industrie. Dit het
aanleiding gegee tot hierdie industrie se oligopolistiese en gesentraliseerde aard
waar slegs enkele multinasionale chemiese en farmaseutiese maatskappye die
meeste biotegnologie prosesse en die vervaardiging van kommoditeite uit daardie
prosesse beheer. Die regering van biotegnologie was tot onlangs oorheers deur
staatsakteurs wie gepoog het om nasionale belange te beskerm, insluitend die
belange van multinasionale korporasies (MNK) wat vanuit hulle grondgebied
funksioneer.
Die tegnologiese vermoë van ontwikkelde state om oneweredig verspreide
hulpbronne tot eie gewin te benut beteken dat 'n ongelyke verhouding bestaan
tussen hierdie en arm ontwikkelende state. Dit word beklemtoon deur verskille in
openbare mening oor die rol en aanwending van biotegnologie in die samelewing.
Terwyl sekere opinies ten gunste van die aanwending van biotegnologie vir die
verbetering van voedselbronne en produksievlakke en handel is, dui ander opinies
op die moontlike gevare wat geneties gemanipuleerde organismes (GMOs) vir die
omgewing en menslike voortbestaan inhou.
Die kommersialisering van biotegnologie het gelei tot die eksponensiële groei van
geneties gemanipuleerde gewasse in veral die Verenigde State en state soos
Argentinië en Kanada. Hierdie state produseer groot hoeveelhede stapelgrane soos
mielies en soja en poog om dit te verkoop aan state met
voedselvoorsieningsprobleme. Die botsing in kommersiële belange wat spruit uit
ontwikkelde state se aandrang op die beskerming van intellektuele eiendomsreg op
geneties gemanipuleerde saad veroorsaak beduidende konflik met arm landbouers
wie nie hulle lewensonderhoud kan verseker as hulle nie saad kan berg vir
toekomstige saaiseisoene nie.
Dit is een aspek van die problematiek rondom die beskerming van kennisprodukte
wat vererger word deur die wetenskaplike onsekerheid wat gepaard gaan met die
risiko's van biotegnologie. Terwyl sekere waarnemers vir waaksaamheid pleit in die gebruik van GMOs, is daar ander wat voel dat 'n gebrek aan wetenskaplike bewyse
van skade genoegsame gronde is vir die voortsetting van ontwikkelings in
biotegnologie. Insgelyks is daar diegene wat meen dat biotegnologie markgedrewe
in plaas van menslike behoefte gedrewe is, wat uiteindelik daartoe lei dat
ontwikkelende state baie min voordeel daaruit trek.
Die Kartagena Protokoloor bioveiligheid is opgestel om van die probleme betrokke
by die oorgrens verskuiwing van GMOs aan te spreek. Hoewel dit spesifieke
voordele vir ontikkelende state inhou is dit as reguleringsraamwerk beperk in omvang
en aanwending. Ontwikkelende state het beperkte beleidsopsies om hulle behoefte
om biodiversiteit te beskerm en voedselvoorsiening te verseker, aan te spreek. Dit
beteken dat beduidende uitdagings en beperkings hierdie state in die benutting van
globale regering van openbare goedere vir die bou van menslike en tegnologiese
kapasiteite in die gesig staar.
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