| Summary: | Thesis (PhD (Sport Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. === Stress and coping are complex phenomena that are not always fully
understood. They are psychological factors that impinge on individuals
and people’s responses in dealing with them are described and
interpreted in various ways. This study compared the coping strategies
used by football players from ethnically diverse backgrounds. The aim
was to explore the role that the environment, ethnicity and culture play
in players' responses to stressful situations.
A sample of 33 players was drawn from a professional club in the
Professional Premier Soccer League in the Western Cape, Republic of
South Africa. Subjects were representative in terms of race, age, years of
experience and playing positions. Eleven black, coloured and white
players for each group were selected for individual interviews. Their ages
ranged between 15 and 32 years.
An interpretive-qualitative research methodology was employed. Semistructured
interviews and a biographical questionnaire were used as
tools to gather information. The data were analyzed using interpretive
analysis or the immersion crystallization method.
The results revealed that football players were exposed to stress and
there were differences and similarities in the way they conducted
themselves. The similarities were recorded on matters related to match
situations e.g., pressure to perform, inclusion in a starting line-up, and
unruly behavior of supporters. Differences were cited on issues related to
language, culture, financial matters, poor playing conditions, negative
evaluation of the team by others, losing matches, referees' decisions and
being away from home. These differences were found both between and
within ethnic groups. Players' perceptions of stress showed that black players were
experiencing more stress than the other two ethnic groups and white
players were experiencing far less stress than the other two groups.
Despite this finding, the majority of players reported to have been in
control of stressful situations. The perception of lack of control was
reported by black and coloured players only. It appeared that
background experience of stressful events was producing greater
psychosocial consequences for non-white players than white players.
The football players used multiple strategies to cope with their sport
challenges and there were both differences and similarities within and
between the ethnic groups in the use of these strategies. Subjects used
problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, passive coping, and
avoidance coping in stressful situations. Problem-focused coping and
emotion-focused coping were the dominant strategies employed by all
three groups. Passive coping and avoidance coping were the lesser-used
strategies and were employed by the three groups in situations where
players felt that they could not exert control e.g., playing conditions or
dubious referees' decisions. Self-criticism, not blaming others, adopting a
negative approach, substance use/abuse and turning to religion were the
strategies that appeared only in specific groups. This finding supports
the hypothesis of differences in strategies related to differences in ethnic
backgrounds.
It was also revealed that football players were responding differently to
stressful challenges that were presented at the different stages of the
match. The dominant strategies used at the pre-match stage by the nonwhite
group were: planning and preparation, relaxation, praying,
focusing and concentration. At the same stage, white players used mostly
focusing, concentration and planning. There were strong similarities
between the groups in the use of these strategies. During the match stage, non-white players used active coping, positive approach,
suppression of competitive activities, focusing and concentration. White
players used similar strategies including emotional expression and
mental disengagement.
Different strategies were employed by players during the match stage,
most of them being problem-focused strategies. In the post-match stage
players used less-dominant coping strategies. Some strategies were used
by players in all three ethnic groups and others appeared in specific
groups only, e.g., substance use (coloured group) and passive thinking
(white group).
The study further revealed that coping strategies could be classified
either as sport or non-sport related. A variety of sport-related strategies
were found mostly during the pre-match and match stages. The nonsport
related strategies appeared mostly during the post-match stage and
were used mostly by non-white players.
Concerning the processes involved in the selection of strategies, the
study revealed that thought-out processes, automatic processes,
influence of experience and a combination of processes were used to
identify and select coping strategies. Processing of information was a
preferred option used by the three groups of players to identify strategies
and very few players used automatic processes. Between-group
differences were found in the relationship between environmental
background and previous experience and the players' selection of coping
strategies. For black and coloured players this influence related mostly
from factors outside their home environment. For white players it came
from within their home situations. The study showed that factors that affected the players in selecting
coping strategies, were both intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic factors
included personal safety and protection, performance, self-control and
personal experience. Extrinsic factors included stress, influence of
others, institutional influences, social background, pleasing others,
family obligation, opponents and research. White players used intrinsic
and extrinsic factors with equal frequency. Non-white players on the
other hand, used fewer intrinsic factors than extrinsic factors. The
results also showed that relatively less-experienced players were inclined
to use achievement motivation as a determining factor. Black players
were influenced by one other factor that did not appear in the other
groups, that is, family obligations.
Finally, exhaustion, cultural differences, language, absence of a family
support structure, peer pressure, home circumstances, communication,
diet, substance use/abuse, being in a new environment, personality
differences and high expectations were identified as factors that restrict
the use of coping strategy. Exhaustion and cultural differences appeared
across all three groups. Group differences were however observed in
language, absence of a family support structure, peer pressure, home
circumstances, high expectations, and absence of compliments. These
restrictive factors were experienced differently within and between the
three ethnic groups and originated from exposure, challenges, and
experiences that players encounter in their daily life situations.
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