| Summary: | Chromium is a contaminant of concern that is found in drinking water in its soluble, hexavalent form [Cr(VI)] and that is known to be toxic to eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Trivalent chromium [Cr(III)] is thought to be largely harmless due to its low solubility and inability to enter cells. Previous work has suggested that Cr(III) may also be toxic to microorganisms but the mechanism remained elusive. In this work, we probe the toxicity of Cr(III) to Shewanella oneidensis MR-1, a bacterium able to reduce Cr(VI) to Cr(III) and compare it to Cr(VI) toxicity. We found evidence for Cr(III) toxicity both under Cr(VI) reducing conditions, during which Cr(III) was generated by the reduction process, and under non-reducing conditions, when Cr(III) was amended exogenously. Interestingly, cells exposed to Cr(III) (200 µM) experienced rapid viability loss as measured by colony-forming units on Luria-Bertani (LB) agar plates. In contrast, they maintained some enzymatic activity and cellular integrity. Cr(VI)-exposed cells exhibited loss of enzymatic activity and cell lysis. The loss of viability of Cr(III)-exposed cells was not due to membrane damage or to enzymatic inhibition but rather appeared to be associated with an abnormal morphology that consisted of chains of membrane-enclosed units of irregular size. Exposure of abnormal cells to growth conditions resulted in membrane damage and cell death, which is consistent with the observed viability loss on LB plates. While Cr(VI) was taken up intracellularly and caused cell lysis, the toxic effect of Cr(III) appeared to be associated with extracellular interactions leading to an ultimately lethal cell morphology.
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