| Summary: | Voltage models of lithium-ion batteries (LIB) are used to estimate their future voltages, based on the assumption of a specific current profile, in order to ensure that the LIB remains in a safe operation mode. Data of measurable physical features—current, voltage and temperature—are processed using both over- and undersampling methods, in order to obtain evenly distributed and, therefore, appropriate data to train the model. The trained recurrent neural network (RNN) consists of two long short-term memory (LSTM) layers and one dense layer. Validation measurements over a wide power and temperature range are carried out on a test bench, resulting in a mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.43 V and a mean squared error (MSE) of 0.40 V<sup>2</sup>. The raw data and modeling process can be carried out without any prior knowledge of LIBs or the tested battery. Due to the challenges involved in modeling the state-of-charge (SOC), measurements are used directly to model the behavior without taking the SOC estimation as an input feature or calculating it in an intermediate step.
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