| Summary: | What are the best approaches to the development of agro-ecological innovations in developing countries?. Approaches to developing agricultural innovation have changed over time, as understanding of the ways in which innovation is produced and the role of the various stakeholders involved changed. In the 1960s and 70s, technology transfer - or the linear approach - was the main model used for agricultural innovation. The idea was that researchers develop technologies which are transferred to farmers through extension services, and that farmers then apply this on the ground. Even today, this approach remains present in a large number of programmes and institutions. In the decades which followed, the linear approach was criticised because of the dominant position of researchers in the production of knowledge and their static view of innovation. These defects were said to be at the root of the poor uptake of new technology produced by researchers. From the 1980s, there was a desire to involve farmers in the development of technological innovation by adopting participative approaches, taking into account the variety of components in their production systems. Farming systems research (FSR) and the farmer field-schools promoted by the FAO are examples of this new vision. These approaches place greater emphasis upon farmers' knowledge in the innovation process. Over time, it became increasingly clear that technical change was not necessarily the main obstacle to improving agricultural performance. Other constraints, of an organisational and institutional nature, were often very limiting and hampered the application of existing technological innovation. This observation led, in the 1990s and 2000s, to the concept of innovation systems. It is now recognised that innovation arises from the interaction between the multiple actors who make up a system. These consist principally of farmers, researchers, agricultural extension agents, farming organisations and stakeholders in the private sector (those selling the means of production, buying agricultural products, banks etc.) who are active in a particular institutional context; and this context is more or less favourable to the adoption of innovation. The development of interaction, which must involve all these actors in order to lead to the emergence of innovation, rarely takes place in an optimal way; hence the need for external intervention to encourage interaction between them. This support aims to ensure that what are known as 'innovation platforms' can operate smoothly. Ecological intensification processes, based on the development of agro-ecological innovation, sit in both a regional and a value-chain context. They require jointly designing innovative production systems with producers, but also the mobilisation of public and private sector stakeholders, who do not necessarily hold the same vision of rural development. In sub-Saharan Africa, the problem of securing funding and, hence, the institutional context within which agro-ecological innovation develops, is particularly critical. This has been demonstrated by initiatives which have been implemented upon over the last two decades by the CIRAD to develop and disseminate direct sowing culture under permanent cover. Adopting and updating agro-ecological innovation requires, therefore, significant efforts to ensure adequate interaction between all relevant stakeholders. The creation of innovation platforms specifically dedicated to realising this objective on the local, regional and international scale, appears to be a potentially interesting way to mobilise the energy required. Turning this approach into reality will certainly involve significant resources and will undoubtedly challenge the positions of certain stakeholders.
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